Organofosforados y organoclorados: toxicología médica y reflejos medioambientales

Autores/as

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v10i10.18853

Palabras clave:

Plaguicidas; Agroquímicos; Organoclorados; Organofosforados; Toxicidad; Diagnóstico; Tratamiento; Impacto ambiental.

Resumen

Los plaguicidas o agroquímicos son sustancias químicas utilizadas en la agricultura, por poseer actividad sobre innumerables organismos vivos perjudiciales para los cultivos. En este contexto, los compuestos organofosforados y organoclorados son de gran relevancia, debido a cuadros de intoxicación humana de importancia médica y contaminación ambiental. El objetivo de este trabajo es sistematizar la información, contextualizando el problema de forma crítica con énfasis en la ecotoxicología y sus consecuencias médicas, asociadas al uso de compuestos organofosforados y organoclorados. Para ello, se llevó a cabo una revisión bibliográfica narrativa, esbozada mediante la búsqueda de artículos científicos y bibliográficos sobre dichos compuestos en los principales repositorios electrónicos internacionales. Los descriptores utilizados para la búsqueda fueron: plaguicidas, agroquímicos, organoclorados, organofosforados, toxicidad, diagnóstico, tratamiento y impacto ambiental. El diagnóstico es principalmente clínico, pero pueden realizarse pruebas laboratoriales para la evaluación/diagnóstico, como la determinación de actividad de la colinesterasa eritrocitaria (AChE) y colinesterasa plasmática (BChE) con fines de prognóstico/seguimiento en casos crónicos. También se pueden solicitar otras pruebas para análisis y investigación. El protocolo terapéutico en casos de intoxicación por organofosforados consiste en la administración de fármacos con actividad antagonista a las sustancias, como atropina y oximas, carbón activado, fármacos anticonvulsivos/neuroprotectores y cuidados intensivos cuando necesario. Sin embargo, no existe tratamiento definitivo relacionado con la toxicidad por organoclorados. A pesar de su elevada toxicidad para el medio ambiente y las formas de vida, los compuestos organofosforados siguen utilizándose para combatir las plagas agrícolas, mientras que los organoclorados se emplean para el control de vectores y  diseminación de enfermedades. Además, estos compuestos están asociados a los accidentes laborales y también a suicidios.

Citas

Ahmed, G., Anawar, H. M., Takuwa, D. T., Chibua, I. T., Singh, G. S. & Sichilongo, K. (2015). Environmental assessment of fate, transport and persistent behavior of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes and hexachlorocyclohexanes in land and water ecosystems. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol, 12, 2741-2756.

Andersson, H., Tago, D. & Treich, N. (2014). Pesticides and health: A review of evidence on health effects, valuation of risks, and benefit-cost analysis. In Preference Measurement in Health: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 24, 203-295. Bingley. UK.

Andréa, M.M. (2004). Contaminação do solo por pesticidas. Centro de Proteção Ambiental do Instituto Biológico.

Bai, J., Lu, Q., Zhao, Q., Wang, J., Gao, Z. & Zhang, G. (2015). Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in wetland soils under different land uses along a 100-year chronosequence of reclamation in a Chinese estuary. Sci. Rep, 5:17624. doi: http//dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep17624.

Baptista, G. C. (1999). Desenvolvimento do uso de pesticidas! inseticidas. Manual de resíduos de pesticidas em alimentos. GARP-Associação Grupo de Analistas de Resíduos de Pesticidas.

Bester, S. M., Guelta, M. A., CHEUNG, J.,et al. (2018). Structural insights of stereospecific inhibition of human acetylcholinesterase by VX and subsequent reactivation by HI-6. Chemical Research in Toxicology, 31(12), 1405-1417.

Botelho, M. G. L., Pimentel, B. S., Furtado, L. G., Lima, M. C. S., et al. (2020). Agrotóxicos na agricultura: agentes de danos ambientais e a busca pela agricultura sustentável. Research, Society and Development, 9(8), e396985806. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v9i8.5806.

Bucaretchi, F. & Baracat, E. C. (2005). Exposições tóxicas agudas em crianças: um panorama. J Pediatria, 81(5), 212-222. Rio de Janeiro.

Caldas, L. Q. A. (2000). Intoxicações exógenas agudas por carbamatos, organofosforados, bipiridílicos e piretróides. Centro de Controle de Intoxicações de Niterói. Rio de Janeiro.

Cavalcanti, L., Aguiar, A., Lima, J. & Lima, A. (2018). Intoxicação por Organofosforados: Tratamento e Metodologias Analíticas Empregadas na Avaliação da Reativação e Inibição da Acetilcolinesterase. Rev.Virtual Qui, 8(3), 739-766.

Chen K. X., Zhou, X. H., Sun, C. A. & Yan, P. X. (2019). Manifestations of and risk factors for acute myocardial injury after acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. Medicine (Baltimore), 98(6), e14371. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000014371.

Curtil, C. & Masson, P. (1993). Aging of cholinesterase after inhibition by organophosphates. Annales Pharmaceutiques Françaises, 51(2), 63-77.

Dani, J. A. (2015). Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor structure and function and response to nicotine. International Review of Neurobiology, 124, 3-19. doi: 10.1016/bs.irn.2015.07.001.

Doctor, B. P. & Saxena, A. (2005). Bioscavengers for the protection of humans against organophosphate toxicity. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 157-158, 167-171.

Faria, N. M. X., Fassa, A. G. F. & Facchini, L. A. (2007). Intoxicação por agrotóxicos no Brasil: os sistemas oficiais de informação e desafios para realização de estudos epidemiológicos. Ciências e Saúde Coletiva, 12(1), 25-38.

Fenik, J., et al. (2011). Properties and determination of pesticides in fruits and vegetables. Trac Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 30(6). doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2011.02.008.

Fernandes, C. L. F., Ramires, P. F., Moura, R. R., Pohren, R. S., et al. (2020). Quais agrotóxicos estão contaminando os solos brasileiros? Research, Society and Developement, 9(3), e114932569. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v9i3.2569.

Ge, J., Woodward, L. A., Li, Q. X. & Wang, J. (2013). Composition, distribution and risk assessment of organochlorine pesticides in soils from the Midway Atoll. North Pacific Ocean. Sci. Total Environ, 452-453, 421-426. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.03.015.

Giordano, G., Afsharinejad, Z., Guizzetti, M., Vitalone, A., Kavanagh T. J. & Costa, L. G. (2007). Organophosphorus insecticides chlorpyrifos and diazinon and oxidative stress in neuronal cells in a genetic model of glutathione deficiency. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 219(2-3), 181-189. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2006.09.016.

Gupta, R. C. (2006). Classification and uses of organophosphates and carbamates. Elsevier, 5-24. Amsterdam. Netherlands. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012088523-7/50003-X.

Hatch, R. Venenos causadores de insuficiência respiratória. (1992). In: Booth, N. H. & McDonald, L. E. Farmacologia e terapêutica em veterinária. (6a ed). Rio de Janeiro. Guanabara-Koogan.

Hernández, A. F., Amparo, M. G., Pérez, V., García-Lario, J. V., Pena, G., Gil, F., et al. (2006). Influence of exposure to pesticides on serum components and enzyme activities of cytotoxicity among intensive agriculture farmers. Environ Res, 102(1), 70-76. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2006.03.002.

Hulse, E. J., Haslam, J. D., Emmett, S. R. & Woolley, T. (2019). Organophosphorus nerve agent poisoning: managing the poisoned patient. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 123(4), 457-463. doi: http//doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2019.04.061.

Jokanovic, M. (2001). Biotransformation of organophosphorus compounds. Toxicology, 166(3), 139-160.

Kovacic, P. (2003). Mechanism of organophosphates (nerve gases and pesticides) and antidotes: electron transfer and oxidative stress. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 10(4), 2705-2709.

Kruse, A. C., Kobilka, B. K., Gautam, D., Sexton, P. M., Christopoulos, A. & Wess, J. (2014). Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors: novel opportunities for drug development. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 13(7), 549-560.

Kumar, B.; Kumar, S.; Gaur, R.; Goel, G.; Mishra, M.; Singh, S.K.; Prakash, D.; Sharma, C.S. (2011). Persistent organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in intensive agricultural soils from North India. Soil Water Res, 6(4), 190-197.

Kumar, S., Kaushik, G., Villarreal-Chiu, J. F. (2016). Scenario of organophosphate pollution and toxicity in India: a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(10), 9480-9491.

Laudari, S., et al. (2014). Cardiovascular Effects of Acute Organophosphate Poisoning. Asia Pac J Med Toxicol, 3(2), 64-67.

Li, W., Yang, H., Gao, Q., Pan, H. & Yang, H. (2012). Residues of organochlorine pesticides in water and suspended particulate matter from Xiangshan Bay, East China Sea. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol, 89, 811-815.

Lionetto, M. G., Caricato, R., Calisi, A., Giordano, M. E. & Schettino, T. (2013). Acetylcholinesterase as a biomarker in environmental and occupational medicine: new insights and future perspectives. BioMed Res International, 2013. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/321213.

Lotti, M. & Moretto, A. (2005). Organophosphate-induced delayed polyneuropathy. Toxicological Reviews, 24(1), 37-49.

Lushchekina, S.V., Schopfer, L.M. & Grigorenko, B. L. (2018). Optimization of cholinesterase-based catalytic bioscavengers against organophosphorus agents. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 9, 211.

Masson, P. & Lushchekina, S. V. (2016). Emergence of catalytic bioscavengers against organophosphorus agentes. ChemicoBiological Interactions, 259, 319-326.

Mew, E. J., Padmanathan, P., Konradsen, F., et al. (2017). A global burden of fatal self-poisoning with pesticides 2006–15: systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 219, 93-104.

Mine, N., Taniguchi, W., Nishio, N., et al. (2015). Synaptic modulation of excitatory synaptic transmission by nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in spinal ventral horn neurons. Neuroscience, 290, 18-30. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.01.015.

Mostafalou, S. & Abdollahi, M. (2017). Pesticides: an update of human exposure and toxicity. Arch. Toxicol, 91(2), 549-599. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1849-x.

Nand, N., Aggarwal, K.., Bharti, K.. & Chakrabarti, D. (2007). Organophosphate induced delayed neuropathy JAPI, 55, 72-73.

Oga, S. (2003). Fundamentos de Toxicologia. (2a ed). Atheneu. São Paulo.

Pang, L., Liu, J., Li, W., Xia, Y. & Xing, J. (2019). Serum ubiquitin Cterminal hydrolase L1 predicts cognitive impairment in patients with acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. Journal of Clinical Laboratory Analysis, 33(7), e22947.

Pearson, M., Metcalfe, C., Jayamanne, S., Gunnell, D., Weerasinghe, M., Pieris, R., et al. (2017). Effectiveness of household lockable pesticide storage to reduce pesticide self-poisoning in rural Asia: a community-based, cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet (London, England), 390, 1863-1872.

Pereira A. S., et al. (2018). Metodologia da pesquisa científica. [free e-book]. Santa Maria/RS. Ed. UAB/NTE/UFSM.

Picciotto, M. R., Higley, M. J. & Mineur, Y. S. (2012). Acetylcholine as a neuromodulator: cholinergic signaling shapes nervous system function and behavior. Neuron, 76(1), 116-129. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.08.036.

Plaza, P. I., Martínez-Lopez, E. & Lambertucci, S. A. (2019). Perfect threat: pesticides and vultures. Science Of The Total Environment, 687, 1207–1218.

Quistad, G. B., Liang, S. N., Fisher, K. J., Nomura, D. K. & Casida, J. E. (2006). Each lipase has a unique sensitivity profile for organophosphorus inhibitors. Toxicological Sciences, 91(1), 166-172. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfj124.

Richards, P. G., Johnson, M. K. & Ray, D. E. (2000). Identification of acylpeptide hydrolase as a sensitive site for reaction with organophosphorus compounds and a potential target for cognitive enhancing drugs. Molecular Pharmacology, 58(3), 577-583. doi: https://doi.org/10.1124/mol.58.3.577.

Rocha, L. C. S. & Spinosa, H. S. (1992). Praguicidas organofosforados e carbamatos: algumas considerações. Comunicações Científicas da Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia da Universidade de São Paulo, 16.

Ródio, G. R., Rosset, I. G. & Brandalize, A. P. C. (2021). Exposição a agrotóxicos e suas consequências para a saúde humana. Research, Society and Developement, 10(8), e43010817526. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v10i8.17526.

Rosemberg, Y. J., Laube, B., Mao, L., et al. (2013). Pulmonary delivery of an aerosolized recombinant human butyrylcholinesterase pretreatment protects against aerosolized paraoxon in macaques. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 203(1), 167–171.

Rosemberg, Y. J., Adams, R. J., Hernández-Abanto, S., et al. (2015). Pharmacokinetics and immunogenicity of a recombinant human butyrylcholinesterase bioscavenger in macaques following intravenous and pulmonary delivery. ChemicoBiological Interactions, 242, 219-226.

Roberts, J. R. & Reigart, J. R. (2013). Recognition and Management of Nonrelaxing. (6a ed). United States. Environmental Protection Agency.

Sagiv, S. K., Bruno, J. L., Baker, J. M., Palzes, V., Kogut, K., Rauch, S., Gunier, R., et al. (2019). Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides and functional neuroimaging in adolescents living in proximity to pesticide application. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, 116(37), 18347-18356. Uni States Am.

Santos, S. P. D. (2002). A Química dos Insecticidas (Parte I). Boletim da Sociedade Portuguesa de Química, 85.

Serrano-Medina, A., Ugalde-Lizárraga, A., Bojorquez-Cuevas, M., et al. (2019). Neuropsychiatric disorders in farmers associated with organophosphorus pesticide exposure in a rural village of northwest Mexico. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(5), 689.

Shadnia, S., Okazi, A., Akhlaghi, N., Sasanian, G. & Abdollahi, M. (2009). Prognostic value of long QT interval in acute and severe organophosphate poisoning. J Med Toxicol, 5(4), 196-199.

Solomon, C., Poole, J., Palmer, K. T., Peveler, R. & Coggon, D. (2007). Acute symptoms following work with pesticides. Occupational Medicine, 54(10), 665-670.

Srivastava, A. K., et al. (1995). Chronic effects of hexachlorociclohexane exposure: clinicai, hematologic and electrographic studies. Veterinary and Humall Toxicology, 37(4), 302-305.

Sun, H., Qi, Y., Zhang, D., Li, Q. X. & Wang, J. (2016). Concentrations, distribution, sources and risk assessment of organohalogenated contaminants in soils from Kenya, Eastern Africa. Environ. Pollut, 209, 177-185. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.11.040.

Sun, I. O., Yoon, H.J. & Lee, K. Y. (2015). Prognostic Factors in Cholinesterase Inhibitor Poisoning. Med Sci Monit, 33(3), 534-539.

Teixeira, H., et al. (2004). Pesticide intoxications in the Centre of Portugal: Three years analysis. Forensic Science International, 143(2-3), 199-204. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.02.037.

Villaça, Y. & Levin, E. (2018). Developmental neurotoxicity of succeeding generations of insecticides. Elsevier, 99, 55-77. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.11.019.

Publicado

12/08/2021

Cómo citar

SILVA, L. L. M. da; GARRIDO, R. G. Organofosforados y organoclorados: toxicología médica y reflejos medioambientales. Research, Society and Development, [S. l.], v. 10, n. 10, p. e313101018853, 2021. DOI: 10.33448/rsd-v10i10.18853. Disponível em: https://rsdjournal.org/index.php/rsd/article/view/18853. Acesso em: 17 jul. 2024.

Número

Sección

Revisiones